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CHAPTER 10
12. ADULTERATION OF PHILOSOPHY IN ISLAM
12.1 The ‘Person and Attributes’ of God
With the inception of religious contests in Islam, first of all, the bone of contention became the question of Jabr-o-Qadr. For the purpose of concealing their atrocities, the Umayyad Caliphs use to emphasize the problems of Ita’at –e- Ameer (submission to the ruler) and Jabr (compulsion). Initially, a Companion of the Prophet, Abu-Musa, propounded the theory of the independence of individuals in their actions, which was adopted and taken up by Sa’eed bin Khalid to incite the people against the Umayyads. Soon, thereafter, controversies started on the question of the ‘Person and Attributes’ of God. Jaham bin Safwan founded a new sect in Islam, whose teachings were that ‘God was devoid of all the “physical attributes and functions.” This belief laid the foundation for the Mu’tazilites, who tried to prove among others, God was not the Creator of evil; its creator was satan. Thus, within Islam, emerged a new concept of dualism; the Mu’tazilites rejected the beliefs in the ‘Appearance of God’ (physically) and also, of the Day of Resurrection. They supported the theory of Qadar as opposed to Jabr. These beliefs opened the door for serious controversy and contention within the Islamic domain, and each group utilized all its logic to confute and defeat its adversaries. Thus, was automatically originated a kind of science, on the pattern of philosophy, which was termed, during the Caliphate of Mamun al-Rasheed, as Ilm-ul-Kalam.
12.2 Ilm-ul-Kalam
During the second and third century Hijri (8th and 9th CE), when the Greek and Iranian thoughts had sufficiently captured the minds of the Muslims, the latter too, commenced their own philosophy on the Greek model; but, at that time, the ‘Ulema termed it ‘apostasy’ and ‘heresy.’ Therefore, they invented Ilm-ul-Kalam as against philosophy, in order to compete with philosophers logically. Yet, some ‘Ulema opposed ‘Ilm-ul-Kalam, as they had rejected conceptual philosophy. Imam Shafe’i had said: “My decision as regards Ahl-i-Kalam is that, they should be flogged and disgraced before the tribes.” Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal too, called Ahl-i-Kalam as Zindeeq (infidels).
The main reason of opposition to both philosophy and Ilm-ul Kalam was that, the ‘Ulema-i-Kalam used to criticize the Riwayaat of the Muhadditheen. Again, Ilm- ul-Kalam was, after all, the name of another branch of philosophy. Nevertheless, despite the opposition to it by the ‘Ulema, both the philosophy and Ilm-ul-Kalam flourished in Islam along with the ascendancy of the Mu’tazilites.
Khalid bin Yazid bin Mu’awwiya had studied the philosophy systematically. Ahul-Hadheef ‘Allaf (131 – 235 H. 748 – 849 CE) – a renowned ‘Aalim and Khateeb (preacher) of the Mu’tazilites began to achieve fame and power during the Caliphate of Yazid bin Waleed Umayyad, and their ascendancy attained its zenith during the Caliphate of Mamun al-Rasheed Abbasi. Before Imam Ghizali, both philosophy and Ilm-ul Kalam were two different and separate sciences, but Ghizali had them combined. Later, Imam Raazi improved and completed Ghizali’s work. The main reason of the great success of both the philosophy and Ilm-ul Kalam in Islam was due to its initial patrons namely, Caliphs Mahdi, Mamun al-Rasheed and Wathiq Billah (as well as the influential family of the Baramikah), and the capable Mutakallimeen, like Abul-Hadheel ‘Allaf Hisham bin al-Hakkam, Nizzam, Abu-Muslim Isfahani and Imam Ghizali.
12.2.1 Methodology
Abdel Wahhab El-Affendi writes in 1998:
“Kalam generally dealt either with attempting to justify religious beliefs to reason, or with employing reason to draw new conclusions and consequences from these beliefs. Its doctrines comprise three major components: the articulation of what a school regarded as fundamental beliefs; the construction of the speculative framework within which these beliefs must be understood; and the attempt to give coherence to these views within the accepted speculative framework.
The various schools of kalam agreed with the traditionalists in accepting the authority of texts as the basis of the first component. They disagreed, however, about the extent to which these texts should be subjected to 'rational' analysis. Traditionalists had always suspected that the 'reason' being referred to was in fact the suspect intellect of infidel heretics; why else would a believer want to drag the articles of faith in front of the court of human reason, fallible and limited as it was? The traditionalist suspicion of non-Islamic influences behind every early kalam-ist 'heresy' has been reproduced by modern researchers, who seek an alien origin for every idea expressed in. However, the impact of non-Islamic influences on the evolution of the schools of kalam, though undeniable, could easily be exaggerated.
Many of kalam's early themes, such as the status of the sinner or the question of political legitimacy, appear to have arisen within a purely Islamic context. Regarding the second component, the speculative framework, the early groups did not erect elaborate systems. It is with the Mu'tazila that we find the first attempt to construct such a system, based on their five principles (divine unity, divine justice, divine warnings, the intermediary status and the enjoining of virtue and discouragement of vice). The Mu'tazila also brought with them an attitude of absolute confidence in human reason and a consequent lack of reverence for the authority of texts, which they regularly challenged.
The third component, the cohesion of views within the speculative framework, also came into prominence with the Mu'tazila, who tried to systematize the body of religious beliefs and harmonize its components, provoking intense controversy as they attempted to reinterpret key elements of orthodoxy in order to achieve this. The attempts at systematization inevitably led to the raising of philosophical questions. Later Mu'tazilite thinkers, such as al-'Allaf and Ibrahim al-Nazzam (d. ah 231/ad 846), reflected in their thesis the influence of translated Greek philosophical texts and propagated a worldview influenced by Hellenistic speculation. The Asharites school, especially { HYPERLINK "http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H050" } and { HYPERLINK "http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H028" }, formally introduced the tools of Aristotelian logic into the methodology of kalam.
This introduction of philosophical themes and methods and the employment of formal logic in the Aristotelian tradition represented a significant development in kalam. Prior to that, kalam arguments had used textual and linguistic analysis as their central tools. However, in spite of these forays into philosophical speculation and the employment of Aristotelian logic, kalam remained firmly anchored in a specifically Islamic framework. Authoritative texts were routinely cited to clinch an argument, while an accusation of heresy was thought to be a conclusive refutation of any argument.
Even without the help of philosophy, however, Ash'arism brought to kalam a trenchant skepticism that had a healthy impact on the field of rational argument. This skepticism was carried to great lengths by al-Ghizali, who used it to demolish the confused Neo-Platonism of the Hellenizing philosophers. This approach had the potential to contribute much more to the advancement of knowledge than the dogmatic reiteration of philosophical theses, but that potential was not to be realized because the kalam practitioners were more interested in demolishing their opponents' arguments than in constructing viable alternatives.” [88]
12.3 Jami'at al-Ikhwan al-Safa
The great impetus for the expansion of the Kalam took the form of the Jami’at al-Ikhwan al-Safa, which was founded by the Shiites at Basra, during the middle of the fourth century Hijri (10th Century CE), with a branch in Baghdad. A Shiite, Zaid bin Rifa’ah, was its president. A clandestine organization, they used to hold private meetings wherein they discussed philosophical subjects; their discourses were then embodied in a number of Rasa’il (tracts) that were read avidly by the Mu’tazilites. Ikhwan al-Safa endeavoured to collect the wisdom of all the people and all the religions. They attempted to sow together the teachings of Socrates, Plato, Zoroaster and the Prophets Noah, Abraham, Jesus, the Prophet Muhammad, and of Hadrat Ali, and claimed that “the Shariah was a good thing, on account of its literal prescriptions for the masses.” It mirrored a medicine for the weak and sick souls, but for the stronger beings, the better things were the philosophical ideas.”[89]
In 1810, Ikram Ali published, in Calcutta, under the title Ikhwan-us-Safa, an Urdu translation of a fragment of the allegorical comparison between man and animals. In 1812 the same fragment was published in Arabic, also in Calcutta, by Sheikh Ahmed bin Muhammad Sharwan al-Yamani under the title of Tuhfa-i- Ikwanus-Safa, with a short English preface by T.T. Thomason. Sprenger[90] was able, some ten years later, to see, in India, four different manuscripts of the ‘Tracts’ (Rasa’il), one complete and three in fragments, which he used for his ‘Notices Of Some Copies of the Arabic Work Entitled, Rasa’il Ikhwan al Safa.’ Obviously unaware of the contemporary evidence of Abu Hayyan at-Tauhidi on the Ikhwan and their Rasa’il, Sprenger later reproduced this later testimony of the Shahraruzi from Tawarikh al-Hukama. At least three of the early European scholars ascribed the authorship of the Rasa’il to al-Majriti. Sprenger, however accepted Shahrazuri’s statement that, the ‘Tracts’ were a corporate work of five philosophers, though the language was that of al-Maqdisi – one of the five named members of the Organization. Sprenger further assigned the date of the ‘Tracts’ to the 4th century Hijri.
The next more serious study is Flugel[91] whose paper (Rasa’il Ikhwan al Safa wa Khallan al-Wafa) forms the bullet and most scholarly of the early studies, in which a list of the 51 Rasa’il (with the exception of al-Jamiah), with their Arabic titles and German translation, is given. The authors of the Rasa’il deliberately concealed their names and circulated their ‘Tracts’ anonymously, rather secretly. Flugel’s attempt to solve this difficult problem is not only based on late sources, such as Ibn al-Ibri, Shahrazuri and Haji Khalifah used by his predecessors, but also the-then newly discovered Ibn al-Qifti, supplemented by Al-Amir as-Safadi’s work, with a bombastic title, Diwan al-Fusaha wa Tarjuman al-balagha wa Tazkirah darah Ghazzahara abkar afkar al-Shora. Qifti’s account includes a reference to two of the theories about the authors of the Rasa’il: that they were either composed by an ‘Alid Imam, or by a Mu’tazilite. Then it reproduces the contemporary testimony of Abu-Hayyan at- Tauhidi. We now know that, it comes from a fuller account in Abu-Hayyan’s work, al-Imta wal-Mu’nasa, to which Flugel had no access. This important book was published in Cairo in three volumes, 1939 – 44, edited, with notes and indexes by Ahmed Amin and Ahmed az-Zain. From the evidence, discovered up to Flugel’s time, it was established that five thinkers namely Abu-Sulaiman Muhammad bin Ma’shar al-Bayusti (known as al-Maqdisi or Muqaddasi); Abu al-Hasan Ali’ Harun az- Zanjanil; Abu-Ahmed al-Mihrajani; al-Aufi, and Zaid bin Rifa’ah (and others unnamed) had established a secret association in Basra, which published some 50 ‘Tracts’ (the exact number of which is an open question), a number of which were known in 373 Hijri. The purpose of the association appears to have been to reform the tenets of Muslim society through the diffusion of the core knowledge, formed through the integration of the Greek philosophy with the Islamic Shari’ah, which the Rasa’il professed to have achieved.
A great advance was made during the second-half of the 19th Century, due to the labours of Dieterici and to the publication of whole Arabic text of the ‘Tracts’ (without al-Jamiah) in Bombay (India) in 1305-6 Hijri. Dieterici’s contribution remains outstanding to the present day. The aforesaid Bombay edition of the Rasa’il was issued by Nuruddin Jiwa Khan, who was an Ismaili, acquainted with some of the unpublished literature of the sect, among it ‘Uyun al-Akhbar by Idris ‘Imaduddin (d. 872 H. / 1467), who assigns their authorship of the Rasa’il to the concealed Imam, Ahmed bin Abdullah, a contemporary of the Abbasid Caliph Mamun al-Rasheed. Almost immediately after the publication of this edition, Sheikh Ali Yusuf issued in Cairo, 1306 Hijri, the first of the four parts of the ‘Tracts’ in one volume. In an article (published in 1928), written a year later, Ahmed Zaki Pasha noted these editions and denied that, there ever was such an Imam as Ahmed bin Abdullah, and declared ‘Uyun al-Akhbar’ a fictitious book. At the same time, he exposed mercilessly the plagiarism of Sheikh Ali ‘Yusuf. But, the significance of Zaki Pasha’s article lies in the fact that, it is the first serious attempt by an Arab scholar to share in the research, in progress in Europe for over 50 years.
There is sufficient evidence in the ‘Tracts’ themselves to prove Ismaili sympathies. However, there is, as yet, no proof that the formation of the Ikhwan al- Safa and the publication of their Rasa’il was an Ismaili movement. Hamdani says that, he has seen no mention of the Rasa’il in the writing of the Fatimid chief missionaries; Ivanow[92]also, corroborates it. Yet, there is evidence of the popularity of the Rasa’il with the later Ismaili missionaries. Guyward was among the first Orientalists to collect substantial evidence of this relationship and at the turn of the century, Casanova tried to prove the identity of Ikhwan al-Safa with Ismailism.
The results of a century of research and publication were used in two well- written accounts of the Ikhwan, the one by Lane Poole (Studies in a Mosque; London, 1893, pp.186-207) and the other by De Boer (Geschichte der Philosophie Islam, English Translation, London, 1903, pp. 81-96). Brockelmann, in his work and its supplements, has noted the most important studies and the various manuscripts of the Rasa’il, preserved in public libraries Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur.[93] Goldziher,[94] who had already questioned the expression of Die lautern Bruder for Ikhwan al-Safa, made a plausible suggestion that the story of the ring-dove, in Kallilah wa Dimnah (which describes how the animals escaped the snares of the hunter by being sincere brethren – Ikhwan al- Safa- to one another), suggested the choice by the Basra group, of that name for themselves.[95] In a note of one paragraph, which he contributed in 1913, Massignon (Sur la date de la composition des Rasa’il Ikhwan al-Safa vol. iv p.324), called attention to certain fragments of Arabic and Persian poetry or single lines, scattered in the ‘Tracts’ and to the definition therein given of the trigonometrically al-jaib, and suggested the use of such evidence to determine a more exact date for the composition of the Tracts. Casanova returned, in 1915, to the subject of the Ikhwan with a similar idea. Interpreting certain astronomical terms in an obscure passage (Rasa’il IV P. 196) he found that, the Rasa’il were composed between 418 and 439 Hijri. Then, interpreting a rhetorical reference to the concealed imam, that, he is really apparent (Rasa’il iv. p.199) he found that it refers to the Fatimid Caliph az-Zahir (411-27 H.) Thus, on the above basis, according to Casanova, the Rasa’il were written between 418 and 427 H.
According to the monograph entitled Jama’atu Ikhwan as-Safa (awarded the first Howard Bliss prize by the American University of Beirut in 1929) the name, Ikhwan al-Safa, was chosen by its founders both as a protest against the treachery and lack of social cohesion of their time, and as an intimation of the Sufi tendency to associate their name with safa (purity). Moreover, reasons are given for suggesting 338 H. as a terminus a quo and 373 H. as a terminus ad quem for the formation of the group and the circulation for a large number of their ‘Tracts.’ As regards the subject of the authorship of the Rasa’il the thesis says that, most probably, al-Maqdisi, as the secretary of the society, wrote them. But the Rasa’il and also ar-Risalah al-Jamiah are ascribed to Maslamah al Majriti (d. 395 H.).[96]
According to Hamdani, (an Ismaili himself), the authorship of the Rasa’il was attributed to an unnamed companion of the Prophet, Ali bin Abi-Talib, to Imam Ja’far as-Sadiq, to other Imams named (Ahmed bin Abdullah) and unnamed, to an unnamed Mu’tazilite, to Jabir bin Hayyan, to al-Hajjaj, to a group called Ikhwan as-Safam, Maslamah al-Majriti, to Abu al-Hakim al-Kirmani and to al-Ghizali. According to Lewis, the Rasa’il if not actually Ismaili, are closely related to Ismailism. But, Hamdani is definitely sided with those who claim Alid authorship for them, particularly because of the prominence given to them in the literature of the Taiyibi Da’wat in Yemen.
However, the publication of Abu-Hayyan’s al-Imta wal-Mu’anasa occasioned an article (Stern, Islamic Culture, October 1946 pp. 367-372) in support of the usual assertion that, the Rasa’il were written by a group of learned men. We, now, turn to consider two valuable contributions, from Damascus. ‘Adel’ Awa’s Paris doctoral thesis (L’Esprit critique des Freres de la Purete, Enyclopedisies arabes du IV/X siecles, Beirut 1948) is a clear and comprehensive survey of the various theories as to the name of the group, the authorship of the Rasa’il, and the date of their composition. This work is the fullest single account of the subject in French. The second notable contribution is the publication of ar-Risalah al-Jamiah, under the auspices of the Arab Academy in Damascus (in two volumes) by Jamil Saliba. This Risal’ah is described the Ikhwan as a ‘tract’ that includes the substance of all the 52 previous tracts, written for the purpose of elucidating the realities of all tracts, which are mere introductions to it. The Damascus text is ascribed to al-Majriti.
A topic, still awaiting detailed study, is the influence of the Rasa’il on Muslim thought both Sunni and Shi’ah, on the one hand, and on the medieval European and Jewish literature, on the other. Three provocative illustrations will not fail to excite the curiosity of interested pupils.
First the eccentric but acute thinker, Ibn Sa’bin (d. 669H/ 1270 CE) states very bluntly that al-Ghizali’s material is “mostly Rasa’il Ikhwan al-Safa, weak in philosophy, like its source.”[97] Second, Flugel says that the Rasa’il were very popular with the Hebrew scholars in Spain. Modern Jewish scholarship has established that, Arabic-speaking Jews who were at the same time ‘Kabbalists’ were strongly influenced by the Rasa’il insofar as the doctrine of Emanation and the significance of numbers were concerned. Third, the influence of the Rasa’il on medieval Christendom has not yet been investigated in the masterly manner as Asiny Palacios proved Dante’s indebtedness to Muslim thought. The same scholar has also composed a most interesting contribution[98] concerned mainly with exposing the plagiarism of a Franciscan monk of the 14th Century, who after turning Muslim in Tunis and assuming the name of Abdullah at-Tarjuman, published a book in Arabic, entitled Tuhfatu’l-Arib fi r-Raddi’ala Ahli’ Salib, which, Palacio proved was a reproduction of the famous Risalatu’l-Insan wal-Haiwan (the dispute between Man and Animals) from Rasa’il Ikhwan as-Safa.[99]
12.4 Muslim Philosophers
As in the east, philosophy was opposed also in Spain in the beginning, where it was considered synonymous with heresy. A large number of Muslim philosophers were oppressed and tortured because of their philosophical knowledge and pursuits; some of them were killed. For instance, Ibn Habib Ishbeli (i.e. of Seville) was assassinated by the order of Caliph Ibn Mansur for his only crime that, he was devoted to philosophy. At that time, the books of philosophy were generally burnt and the philosophers were condemned as kafir (infidels). The religious contests were not then in vogue. Ibnus-Saminah was the first person to convey I’tizal and philosophy from the east to Spain.
12.4.1 Ibn-Hazm
Thus, as in the East, the philosophy flourished in Spain, too, with the support of the-then government in the 3rd century Hijri (9th Christian Century), up to the end of the 4th century Hijri (10th Century CE), a large number of the Muslim philosophers had gathered in Spain. Nevertheless, the great Muslim sage of that time, Ibn-Hazm, was exiled, because of his philosophical knowledge and his tendency towards analogical deductions; he died in very straitened and pitiable condition in 452 Hijri – 1060 CE.
12.4.2 Ibn-Rushd
Ibn Rushd (d. 595 H – 1198 CE) advanced the knowledge of philosophy particularly, and translated the works of Aristotle. Today, Greek philosophy extant in the West is indebted for its expansion to Allamah Ibn-Rushd; but the latter, too, suffered, for committing the same ‘crime,’ as he was exiled by the order of Caliph Mansur. Ibn-Rushd used to say that, philosophy and Shariah were synonyms. Therefore, he endeavoured to render both of them compatible with one another. According to him, the learning of philosophy was, if not obligatory, at least desirable.
The real name of Ibn Rushd (Averroes) was Muhammad, and his kunniyat was Abul-Waleed. Rushd was the name of his great-grandfather. Ibn Rushd was born at Cordova, Spain in 520 H. /1126 CE. His ancestors held the post of Qadi. At first, he graduated in the sciences of Fiqh and medicine. Thereafter, he went to Morocco, where its ruler, Abu Yaqub Yusuf Al-Muwahhid (Almohades) became his patron in 565 Hijri/ 1169 CE. Ibn Rushd was appointed the Qadi of the city of Seville and in 567 H. / 1171 CE he was promoted Qadi of Qurtabah (Cordova). In 578 Hijri / 1182 CE he was appointed the personal physician of the ruler of Morocco, Ibn-Yusuf, from where he returned to Spain as the Qadi al-Qaddat of Cordova. After Ibn-Yusuf, his successor, Yaqub al-Mansur, at first, patronized Ibn-Rushd, but when the Fuqaha complained against his beliefs to the ruler Ibn Rushd was exiled. He died in 595 H. / 1198 CE. He left behind his works on philosophy, medicine, Fiqh, ‘Ilm-i-kalam, astronomy, Arabic syntax, and commentaries on the works of Aristotle.[100]
12.4.3 Ibn-Majah
Ibn-Majah (d. 1128 CE) too, improved considerably the knowledge of philosophy in Spain. He was the master of the sciences of mathematics, astronomy, music and medicine, and was also deeply interested in logic, philosophy, natural sciences and metaphysics. He was, nevertheless, considered by the-then ‘Ulema as an eccentric, heretic and immoral, and as a result suffered death by poisoning.
12.4.4 Ibn-Tuifal and others
Ibn-Tuifal (d.1185 CE) was also counted among the prominent Muslim philosophers of the-then Spain. He wanted to amalgamate the Greek sciences with the Oriental for the purpose of evolving a new theory of the universe. In his time, philosophy was considerably popular with the-then government. He remained in Granada as the Government Secretary for some time; thereafter, he was recalled to Morocco as the Vizier and personal physician of the ruler, Abu-Yaqub.
In the east, the following Muslim philosophers attained fame and popularity for the expansion of philosophy. Yaqub al-Kindi - a contemporary of Caliph Mamun al-Rasheed – was perhaps the first person to have written books on philosophy and translated, into Arabic, books on other sciences. After him, Abu Nasr Farabi did his best to compromise philosophy with keen interest, in the philosophy of Neo- Platonism, which he popularized at the end of the 10th Christian century. Since he was a confidant and treasurer of Sultan Abu-Abdullah, he was a great success.[101]
12.4.5 Ibn Sina
Died in 418 Hijri / 1036 CE, he appeared like a sun on the horizon of philosophy. Ibn Sina was the master of both the sciences of philosophy and medicine. He did his best to mould his views of philosophy to be in consonance with the beliefs of common Muslims, yet he was called a heretic (for his certain philosophical views, that were not compatible with the general line of religious thought) by Imam Ghizali.
The real name of Shaikhur-Ra’is Bu’Ali Sina was Husain and kunniyat Abu-Ali. His father’s name was Abdullah. He was born 370 H. / 980 CE at a place called Ashnah (in the suburbs of Bukhara, in the present Turkmenistan). He received his education in Bukhara, and soon became an adept in the sciences of the Holy Qur’an, literature, Fiqh, logic, mathematics and cosmology. Later, he individually studied physics, meta-physics and medicine. He was a fadil (accomplished scholar) at the early age of 17, and had started compiling books from the age of 21. He attained early popularity as a great physician by successfully treating the ruler of Bukhara, Nuh bin Mansur. Thereafter, he remained attached to the courts of the rulers of Jurjan, Ray, Hamadan, and Isfahan. He spent his last days of his life under the patronage of the ruler of Isfahan, Ala’uddaulah, but died at Hamadan, where he was also buried. His scientific and religious thoughts were much influenced by the views of both Farabi and Ghizali, on which the effects of Neo-Platonism were evident.[102]
12.4.6 Alberuni & Ibn Al-Haitham
Alberuni (973 – 1048 CE), a disciple of Yaqub al-Kindi, was a great authority on the sciences of mathematics, astronomy, geography, and ethnology, as well as philosophy and literary criticism.[103]
Ibn Al-Haitham (d. 1038 CE) was the master of the sciences of mathematics, optics, philosophy and physics. He desired to lay the foundations of all the sciences on philosophy; by studying Aristotle avidly and wrote commentaries on his works.
12.4.7 The Mutakallim Imams Ash’ari, Ghizali, Shahrastani and Ibn-Taimiyah
The earliest Mutakallim Imams were Ash’ari, Ghizali, and ‘Allamah Muhammad bin Abdul Karim Shahrastani[104]. There was no adulteration of philosophy in Ilm-ul-Kalam up to the time of Imam Ash’ari, but, in the time of Imam Ghizali both of them were synchronized. Although Imam Ghizali refuted philosophy yet whatever he had written earlier, in its favour, had given a great fillip to its expansion. After the four great Imams (Imam Azam Abu-Hanifah, Imam Malik, Imam Shafe’i, Imam Ahmed bin Hanbal) up to the time of Imam Ghizali achieved popularity and fame, the Islamic Caliphate was in a state of decay, and was replaced by the empire of the Seljuqs.
The beginning of Imam Ghizali’s erudite life was made from his position as sadar mudarris (principal) at the Madressah Nizamiyah of Baghdad. He superseded all his predecessors in his excellence in the sciences of philosophy and Ilm-i-Kalam. He became a favourite protégé of the Seljuq Sultans. It was then that he declared lawful both the offices of the Caliph and the Sultan, and had also pronounced the separation of Khilafat from Sultanate permissible. However, in 478 H. / 1085 CE, there was a sudden and drastic change in his views. He abandoned Baghdad and disappeared in the wilderness. He also traveled extensively throughout the Muslim domains. He often fasted and underwent great hardships in his devotions to God. At last, after a long time, he settled down at a place, but boycotted the kingly courts up to his last days. That was the time, when he compiled his world-famous book, Ihya ul- Uloom, and surrendered his verdict on the-then government in the following words:
“The entire administration of the existing Muslim States was un- Islamic and illegal.
His greatest contribution to the Islamic thought was his presentation of the correct teachings of the Islamic morals to the Muslim masses. He infused a tremendous revolutionary spirit in Muhammad bin Abdullah Tumari, who, having raised the banner of revolt in Spain, founded there the unalloyed and pure Islamic regime of Muwahhideen (Almohades). He mercilessly exposed the duplicity and hypocrisy of the misguided ‘Ulema and time-serving Sufiya of his days, who became his mortal enemies, with the result that, the copies of Ihya ul-Uloom were burnt in market places and fatwas of kufr and ilhad (heresy) were passed against him. In the last days of his life, he had restarted teaching, but never came out of his seclusion. With his aversion to the institution of kingship, he was progressively inclined towards mysticism, so much so that, he permitted even music. That is why Allamah Ibn-Jauzi, Imam Ibn-Taimiyah and Ibn-Rushd opposed him bitterly.
‘Allamah Shahrastani was a reputed Muhaddith (Traditionists) and Imam of ‘Ilm-i-Kalam; Milal-O-Nahal, was his best book. As indulgence in philosophy was then considered a sin, he too could not save himself from the label of heretic. After him, Imam Raazi (d. 606 H. / 1209 CE) became a famous exponent of philosophy. He was an authority in Fiqh and rational interpretations; he was also an inimitable orator. He amalgamated Ilm-i-Kalam with philosophy insofar that the sciences appeared as one; after him there was no distinction between Ilm-i-Kalam and philosophy.[105]
A century and a half after Imam Ghizali was born Ibn-Taimiyah (661 – 728 H. / 1262 - 1327 CE). It was the unfortunate period of the history of Islam, when a central government was non-existent. The entire Muslim world was then trembling under the barbaries of the Tartar invaders, and the Islamic millat, from the river Nile to that of the Euphrates was only half alive. Ibn-Taimiyah declared a war against the deceitful sufiya and humbled them in religious contests in the open courts of the-then Muslim rulers. He was an unparalleled master of the sciences of Ilm-i-Kalam, Hadeeth, Tafseer, Quran, Bahr – al –Muheet – in 40 volumes, and compiled his discourses on the problems of Fiqh in 50 volumes, the collective name of which was Fatwa. Because of his uncommon profusion of his literary works, he is considered a literary giant, unchallengeable by his adversaries. In spite of his being, a wonderful Mutakallim, he condemned that philosophy and Ilm-i-Kalam which aimed to copy the Greek philosophy blindly. He mercilessly criticized the imitational tendencies and the stale-mate, prevalent among the Muslims, by reviving the dormant spirit of Ijtihad (analogical deduction) in Islam that died three centuries earlier. He infused fresh breath into the tired lungs of the Islamic millat through Jihad by inciting the sultan of Egypt, for one, and the common Muslims to wage an independence struggle against the barbarous Tartar occupiers. When, in 699 Hijri, the Tartars attacked Damascus and the Egyptians fled away from the battlefield, Imam Ibn-Taimiyah reached Cairo immediately; thereafter he rebuked the Egyptians for their cowardice and rekindled the fire of resistance in their hearts. Similarly, he wrote letters to Sultan Nassirn inviting him to participate in the jihad against the Tartars, with the result that, in the ensuing battle, the Egyptians defeated the Tartar hordes.
In the battle of Kasarwan (Zul-Hijjah, 704 H. 1304 CE), he too participated and was born victorious. Thus Imam Ibn-Taimiyah, by his practice, revived the memories of the glorious Companions of the Prophet of Islam. Even with this respite, the Ahmad’i and Rifa’i dervishes, on the one side, raised a hue and cry against him before the Egyptian government, and a group of misguided ‘Ulema under the leadership of Shaik-ul Islam became his enemies. As Imam Ibn-Taimiyah had publicly opposed Ibn-Arabi, therefore, the entire Sufi group of Egypt opposed him. He was accused of having been a disciple of Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal, and was prosecuted in the court of Malik Qadi. Whilst censured for his beliefs and sent to prison, it was further proclaimed, that whosoever held concerted views with Ibn Taimiyah, would hence receive the penalty of death and the confiscation of his property. The duration of Ibn Taimiyah’s life was spent imprisoned, due to the inveritable efforts of the sufiya and ‘Ulema. He, nonetheless, neither refrained from rigidly following his views, nor kept himself from condemning the un-Islamic practices of the Sufiya. Neither the rigours of prison-life nor the coaxing offers of favour from the rulers ever shook Imam Ibn Taimiyah, due to his dogged determination to tread the path of the righteous. So long as pen, ink and paper were made available, he continued forthwith writing on the prison walls and floors. When this, too, became illicit, the great Imam and Mujahid of Islam continued his writing, on the walls and floors, with pieces of charcoal, until has last breath.
After Imam Azam Abu-Hanifah, the Muslim world is not aware of an equally accomplished personality as Imam Ibn Taimiyah. He was not interested in the dogma and theocratic jargon of philosophy; on the contrary, he considered its acquisition as a means of heresy. [106]
12.5 Greek Philosophy and its Influence on Islam
12.5.1 Socrates
The golden age of Greek philosophy started with Socrates (469 – 399 BC), who was called by the Greeks, ‘the founder of philosophy and literature’[107] It was said that, Socrates revealed the philosophy from the heavens to the earth. He showed particular interest in the progress of morals. He had bitterly criticized the religious belief of his times and raised the banner of revolt against idolatry; whilst opposing Homer’s poetry. According to Socrates, ‘knowledge is the greatest virtue.’ He did not leave any literary work, yet, his views on ‘the Image of God’ are known through Plato’s ‘The Republic.’
12.5.2 Plato
Plato (427 -360 BC) succeeded Socrates, and founded a sect known as Ishraqi. At first he studied under Socrates, and later, went to Egypt to learn the philosophy of Pythagoras from his disciples. Plato was the follower of Heraclitus in physics, of Pythagoras in theology and Socrates in philosophy, literature and morals. He believed in an accidental creation of the world, intellectual acumen, and the immortality of the soul. Rejecting the theory of the reality of the universe, he taught this world was imaginary, it was a mere exercise in futility to try to solve its problems; rather, according to him, reality was life after death, which was the ultimate destiny of life. Plato lived his entire life in monasteries and hermitages. Thus, his teachings generally induced inactivity and lethargy. He taught the lessons of the renunciation of this world and of spending life in seclusion.
12.5.3 Aristotle
Among Plato’s disciples, Aristotle (384-322 BC) was the most prominent, who was called by the Muslim philosophers the ‘Imam of Philosophy’ and Mu’allim- Awal (the First Teacher). He was more realistic as compared with Plato and believed in the reality and meaningfulness of this universe. He had rejected Plato’s ‘Utopian’ Theory. While Plato was devoted to the science of geometry, Aristotle was more interested in botany. The geometrical theories had presented an imaginary formula of this universe in Plato’s mind, but through his botanical and zoological studies, he endeavoured to find the realism of worldly affairs. Darwin also, during his research of the existence of matter, had praised Aristotle.
The father of Aristotle was the court physician of the king Philip of Macedonia- the father of Alexander the Great; therefore, Aristotle had greater access to the tools and resources needed to perform his research in science, philosophy, botany, and the existence of the universe. He preferred experiments as opposed to arguments. Aristotle did not believe God was the Creator of the Universe; according to him, matter was eternal. Despite these views, Aristotle believed God to be the Object and Ideal of the Universe; everything inclines toward Him. God, according to Aristotle, was the source of all energy and movement and as he claimed, it was Love alone, which tends everything to revolve and rotate around His Being. Aristotle believed in the excellence and superiority of knowledge and intellect.
12.5.4 Three Schools of Philosophy
After Aristotle, the teachings of philosophy continued to circulate in Ancient Greece several centuries later. When the subsequent independence of the Greek Republic came to the end philosophy was replaced by theology and moral sciences. The most important three schools of philosophy were:
1) Stoics (born in 340 BC) converted the theory of ‘matter’ and ‘image’ of Aristotle into the ‘body’ and ‘soul’. His followers were known as Rawaqiyah, who believed everything existed in the world as parts of God himself. They taught the theory of one humanity, universal brotherhood, and ‘God being the Father of all.’
2) Epicurean Philosophy: The founder of this sect was Epicurus (born 336 BC) who disbelieved in the Day of Resurrection and the ‘Final Judgment’. He taught that, since human existence was limited, make the best use of it, as everybody and everything in the Universe will ultimately perish.
3) Neo-Platonism[108] was the most popular sect at the time, whose founder was Amitos Sakkas, a former porter, who, later, became a teacher of philosophy at Alexandria (Egypt). Though born of Christian parents, he later became a follower of the ancient Greek faith. After his disciple, Plotinus (204 – 70 CE) became a great exponent of his master’s views and teachings. He fasted frequently and lived in solitude. He claimed that, during his life, he had seen God Himself several times, and six times, his body came in physical contact with that of God. According to him, this universe was a mere mirage, and the ultimate object of human life was its merger with God.
The Neo-Platonist system of philosophy continued for a period, thereafter the King of Rome, Justinian, in 521 CE, closed and banned all the schools of philosophy in Athens, entailing to the acceptance of Christianity by many philosophers, but some of them fled to Iran, where the Iranian King Chosroes (Khusrau Nausherwan) patronized them. From among those philosophers, who embraced Christianity, one, claiming himself disciple of Polis – a companion of Jesus – a work on Neo-Platonism emerged, wherein he explained according to the Platonian teachings and belief the intricacies regarding the secrets of Godship, the degrees of the ‘world of angels’ and all about cosmology and cosmogony. This new religion stressed the necessity of the amalgamation of the philosophical views of both Plato and Aristotle.
12.5.5 Hama Ost
The foundation of the teachings of Greek philosophy is laid on ‘intellectualism.’ According to the Neo-Platonists, the basic and real thing was knowledge of the universe. Accordingly, faith was superior to practice. Another peculiarity of the teachings of Greek philosophy was ‘monasticism,’ which deprives human beings from all mundane activities. According to them, this world was merely imaginary; nothing is based in reality. The theory directed followers to attain the highest spiritual accomplishments through meditation and solitude. ‘Everything is God’ (Hama Ost) emanated from the Greek philosophy. The Neo-Platonists believe, everything in the Universe, is a part of God Himself, and, also the combination of God and man was possible, that is, “man can merge into the Being of God, and God can enter the soul of man.”[109]
12.5.6 Islam and Neo-Platonism
When the Muslims became interested in philosophy they encountered primarily Neo-Platonism. This was that branch of philosophy in which both the philosophy and theology were sought to be combined. It commenced at Alexandria at the beginning of the third century CE. The founder’s key object was, along with Christian theology, Greek religions, and the theories of Plato, to be amalgamated with Eastern beliefs. The Muslims took particular interest; Yaqub al-Kindi (Failsoof-i- Arab) was the first to attain fame in this respect. He introduced the Greek philosophy to Arabic literature through his translations. Abu-Nasr Farabi followed him, and was alive in the time of Saifuddaulah bin Hamdan. Farabi was a great linguist and master of the sciences of lexicography, philosophy, music and mathematics. Very fond of the teachings of Aristotle, known as Mu’allim-Awal (the first master), he, Farabi, was known As Mu’allim-i-Thani (the second master).
In this field, the Jami’at-i-Ikhwan al Safa too produced numerous works. Their aim was to present Islam completely in the garb of Greek philosophy. They were followed by the world-famous physician and philosopher, Bu’ Ali Sina (Avicenna), who was also a master of the sciences of theology and logic. Between the third and fifth Hijri (9-11 Century CE), Greek philosophy became and remained popular with the Muslims, thereafter a group appeared, which as regards theology, contradicted the theories of Plato, Aristotle, and Neo-Platonism. It was the foundation of the Ilm-i-Kalam. The Mutakallimeen contradicted not only the philosophers, but also the Mu’tazilites, zanadiqah (heretics) and Hanabilah. This group included Imam Abul-Hasan Ash’ari, Imam-ul Haramain, and Baqilani. Afterwards, Imam Ghizali’s teaching and books turned the attention of the Muslims again toward philosophy. After the 6th Century Hijri (12th Century CE), except Ibn- Khalladun, another great Muslim philosopher and Muhaqqiq (researcher) was not born.[110]
12.6 Religious Faiths of India
In pre-historic India, objects of nature were worshipped. There, the beginning of philosophy coincided with the period of the Upnashids. The celebrated German philosopher, Schopenhauer, was a great admirer of the spiritualism of the Upnashids. It is said, they were the source of the origin and theory and philosophy of Wahdatul- Wajud. According to the Upnashids, everything in the universe was a symbolic expression of God; they taught the belief in the unification of both man and God.
12.6.1 Buddhism
During the early era of Islam, Buddhism was prevalent not only in India, but also throughout Iran; and the followers of this faith, were also found in China and Japan. The founder of this faith was the Prince of Kapalwasthu, Gautama Buddha. The foundation lay on the belief the universe is replete with sorrows and troubles. There was not a soul able to find peace and tranquility. Human body was a prison for its soul. Gautama believed in the theory of transmigration of the soul; the human soul discards its circle of transmigration (the frequent rebirth, in the shape of various animals or humans), only when, as a result of its overall conduct, it is completely purified. In the beginning, the idea of God was present in Buddhism, in the same way as it existed in the Upnashids; but, later, in both of them, God’s existence was eliminated, and their original teachings were corrupted.
12.7 Persian Influence on Arabs and Islam
Besides India, Iran and Greece, in other non-Arab countries too, the religious beliefs, that were prevalent at the time of the birth of Islam, were derived from one of the following three schools of philosophical thought: 1) Upnashids, 2) Buddhism and 3) Roman-Greek Neo-Platonic Iranian Zoroastrianism, and in the entire Asian region, the views of monasticism, Wahdatul-Wajud, and immolation had occupied the minds of the people. In spite of the Quranic warnings, after Khilafat-i-Rashidah, the Muslims (accepting the philosophies of Iran, Greece and India, as the custodians of right and truth) started the interpretations of the Quranic Ayat compatible to them, and proclaimed identical heretical teachings as their criteria for thought and faith.
At the inception of Islam, Persian culture, civilization, knowledge and sciences, were at the height of their popularity; Iran being the centre of all learning of Greek, Chaldean and Syriac origins. Albeit, Iran was overpowered militarily and politically by the Arabs, yet, in the fields of culture and civilization, it had, even in the first century after its defeat, superseded Arabia and every aspect of Arab life was saturated with Iranian culture and taste. As the inter-communal relations strengthened, the grip of Iranian philosophy of life began to tighten on Islamic thoughts and behaviour. The mutual combination of the teachings of Neo-Platonism and Muzdakiyat with Islamic thought, was implemented by those Iranians whom had either become Muslims or by those who came in great numbers to Arabia as war- captives, and then chose to remain permanently.[111]
12.7.1 Caliph Mansur
As early as in the time of Ameer Mu’awwiya, the harmful practice of associating the non-Muslim scientists with the governmental machinery had commenced. The Umayyad prince, Khalid bin Yazid 1 (d. 85 H./704 CE) had learned the science of chemistry from a Greek monk, Miryanus, and had numerous Greek texts translated to Arabic, by his chief translator Istafan. During the reign of Marwan bin al-Hakam, a Jewish physician, Maserjis, had translated Qarabadin (materia medica) from the Syriac language into Arabic. Hadrat Umar bin Abdul-Aziz had entrusted the medical health branch of his administration to a famous Muslim of Greek descent, Ma’lam ibn al-Jabr. The Meer-Munshi (chief scribe) of Hisham bin Abdul-Malik had translated the treatises, Aristotle had written for Alexander. Salim’s son, Jiballah, had translated, from Persian into Arabic, the stories about the Iranian heroes – Rustam, Asfandyar and Bahram. During the Caliphate of Hisham, the heretic sect of Manicheans, which had fled from Iran, was accorded shelter in the Arab domain.
After the Umayyad period, the Abbasid Caliph, Mansur, was personally interested in astrology; his famous astrologer, Naubakht, converted to Islam as a Persian. Naubakht succeeded, in his past, by his son, Abu-Sahl. Abdullah bin al- Muqaffa, a celebrated orator and penman, lived in Caliph Mansur’s period, the latter had appointed a famous Syriac, Jurjis Bakhtishu, as his personal physician whom he had invited from Iran. From the beginning of the Abbasid reign, all the faculties of learning and knowledge were possessed by Iranian scholars; the imams of syntax, philology, hadeeth, Fiqh and philosophy were almost all from Iran. Since the Abbasids had defeated the Umayyads with the help of the Iranians, therefore, for their personal ends, the Abbasids patronized them lavishly. It was the policy of Caliph Mansur to belittle the Arabs and honour the Iranians. He endeavoured to persuade the Muslims not to go to Mecca and Medina for their annual pilgrimage, but instead, he commissioned the construction of a green-coloured dome in Baghdad, as an alternative place of sacred worship. Owing to this serious violation of the sanctity of the Holy places, Imam Malik exhorted the Muslims in Medina, to defy their allegiance to Caliph Mansur, and take the Bai’at (oath of allegiance) of Muhammad bin’ Abdullah instead. Yet, Mansur remained victorious.
12.7.2 Harun and Mamun
During the Caliphate of Harun al-Rasheed, with the influence of the Shi’ite family of Baramikah, the Iranians controlled completely all the functions of the state. The chief physician of Caliph Haroon al-Rasheed was a magian (fire-worshipper) , Jibr’ail Bakhtishu; and the chief of Baitul Hikmat, Yuhannah bin Masoyah, was a Greek; another translator of Baitul Hikmat, Fadal bin Naubakht, was also a Zoroastrian. In the court of Caliph Haroon, there was a Hindu physician, by the name of Mankah. Other Hindu philosophers in Baghdad, then, were Kanak and Shanaq.
During Mamun al-Rasheed’s Caliphate, the influence of the Iranians had reached its pinnacle. Mamun had resided in Merv and was born of an Iranian slave girl. In his reign, Islamic politics was fully overshadowed by that of Iran. His prime minister, Fadal bin Sahl, was an Iranian and his army was devoid of a single Arab soldier. According to the celebrated historian, Mas’udi, Mamun followed the code of Ardsher for ruling over his subjects. In Mamun’s time, the laudable translation department was supervised over by such eminent men as Yaqub al-Kindi, Hunain bin Ishaq, Qusta bin Luqa, Sahl bin Harun and Ibn al-Bitriq.
12.7.3 The Shu’ubiyah Movement
The feelings of supremacy of Iran and hatred against the Arabs reached such height, during the Abbasid Caliphate, that a new anti-Arab school of thought was then founded with the name of Shu’ubiyah, whose members chanted of Iranian superiority in Arabic qasa’id (eulogical poems), and even dared to invite the people to defame the sacred names of the Great Prophet of Islam and Khulafa-i-Rashideen. Once, Haroon al-Rasheed had ordered one of their anti-Islam and anti-Arab poets, Abu-Nuwas (d. 810 CE), to be imprisoned for the same affront. During the reign of Caliph Mu’tasim, the Shu’ubiyah movement rose to greater heights. However, the Caliph ultimately realized the risks associated with superior Iranian hegemony in the State, and, in order to balance it, he introduced the Turkish element in the military. However, then, with the growing influence of the Turks in the army, Arab politics was thoroughly subdued, and the Arab caliphate came completely under the influence of non-Arab elements. Though different racially, the Turks were akin to the Iranian’s socially and morally. Caliph Mu’tasim had transferred a great part of his authorities to his court- physician, Salmoyah bin Naban, also of Persian decent. Both Caliphs Mutawakkil and Mahdi, used to make their non-Arab courtiers sit by their side on the throne. During the Caliphate of al-Mu’tadid, the entourage of his court-physician, Thabit – a Sabean – was not inferior, in pomposity, to that of the Caliph himself. This uncommon patronage of the Iranian, Greek and Roman philosophers and scientists by the Abbasid Caliphs filled the entire Islamic domain with foreign thoughts and teachings.
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